What Works in Education, Second edition.
Judith Crandall, John Jacobson, & Howard Sloane. (Eds.). (1997).
Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies.
ISBN 1-881317-05-6 (paper) 64 p. $12.95
Wilma R. Rimes
The Mabel B. Wesley Elementary School, in Houston, Texas, has had a school-wide Direct Instruction language arts curriculum since 1976, and has implemented other direct instruction programs and other programs based on related approaches in other subject matters. 84% of the largely African-American student body population qualify for free or reduced lunch. In spite of the sometimes severe conditions of poverty from which many of the students come, this school consistently outperforms other elementary schools within the Houston school district, including schools with students in the top SES. Through the use of Direct Instruction, students develop the foundation skills on which they can build many of the skills other programs assume students will acquire with no direct planning. They are able to move successfully from the structured learning environment of Direct Instruction to advanced lessons in thinking and problem solving and are also well-prepared to handle less structured "student-centered" environments. Comparison students show Wesley students greatly outperforming matched minority schools in the state, and outperforming state norms for all schools except in grade 5 math, where scores were equal to state norms. On standardized test Wesley scores at or above national norms.
Ethna R. Reid
ECRI provides consulting and training for individual classrooms, grade-levels or entire schools in implementing a direct instruction model in language arts. The ECRI model is applied to and adapted for existing instructional materials. From these materials structured lessons are developed to teach an integrated curriculum of phonics, oral and silent reading, comprehension, spelling, and creative and expository writing. ECRI also includes rate building, mastery learning and behavior management components. Staff receive pre-service and ongoing in-service training. Teaching is adjusted as needed based on student performance. Evaluations and validations starting in 1975 show significantly higher achievement than non-ECRI schools with the most recent national evaluation producing reading and language gains in K-12 exceeding an average of two years gain per year.
C. J. Conard
The Fairbanks Country Day program is a K-12 private school designed to use a Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) along with computer technology for delivery of basic academic curriculum. In PSI students study individually prescribed lessons using textbooks and supplementary materials, completed computer-generated exercises and mastery tests. They interact with their teachers primarily on a conference basis, receiving feedback and encouragement and additional instruction as needed. Whole-group lectures are presented but attendance is voluntary. Students, teachers, and parents receive daily data on student progress and if needed students are provided with extra incentives and instruction to maintain progress congruent with their skill levels and expected level of performance. Teaching is adjusted as needed based on student performance. In the 1995 and 1996 evaluations, SAT scores for the total battery (reading, math, language, spelling) were from 1-4 years above grade level.
Kent R. Johnson
Morningside Academy is a private school in Seattle, Washington offering an academic program for students in grades K-10. Many of the students have performed below their potential. Some have been diagnosed as having Learning Disabilities and others are said to have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Some are behind their peer group for no diagnosed reason. Initial remediation of academic skills is accomplished through the use of a combination of Direct Instruction for mastery of basic academic skills and Precision Teaching to build rate. Once having learned required basic skills, instruction shifts from Direct Instruction to concentrate on teaching thinking skills in reading comprehension, math, social studies and science. This is accomplished through the use of the Talk-Aloud-Problem-Solving (TAPS) and peer tutors. Staff receive pre-service and ongoing in-service training. Teaching is adjusted as needed based on student performance. Ten years of standardized test data support gains in reading, language arts and math averaging over two years gain per academic year.
Ed Schaefer
JP Associates is a consulting firm which implements school-wide, whole-system programs of Direct Instruction. Administrators as well as teachers and ancillary personnel receive pre-service and in-service training including in-classroom coaching to conduct high-quality Direct Instruction lessons. The critical indicator of teacher performance is student learning, which is evaluated using both program-based criterion- referenced as well as norm-referenced (standardized achievement) tests. Teaching is adjusted as needed based on student performance. In an evaluation, when a school implemented this on its own, significant achievement gains were noted. When then again implemented with appropriate support and training, scores increased even more. Some classes of mostly minority students obtained top scores in the state.
Charles Greenwood
This is an instructional strategy developed to help teachers individualize instruction, while still providing students with ample opportunity to become actively engaged during instruction. In CWPT, class members are organized into student-tutor pairs. Each earns points for completing their role competently. Students change roles during the day, sometimes performing as the student and sometimes as the tutor. CWPT provides ample opportunity for students to practice and master what they are learning and also encourages positive social interaction among students. Twelve years of data indicate that at-risk students and students with disabilities in programs using CWPT acquired literacy skills at a faster rate, retain more, and made greater advances in social competency than with a variety of standard instructional methods. Need for special education placement, as well as number of dropouts, decreased.
R. Douglas Greer
Using a university-based training model, CABAS provides teacher training, supervisory support and administrative support to implement a system or school-wide program for students with disabilities including visual impairment, mild to profound mental retardation, autism, learning disabilities, and emotional disturbances and has also been used to mainstream students. CABAS-trained teachers provide academic instruction and classroom behavior management based on a combination of technologies developed through scientific research in human behavior. These technologies include Direct Instruction, Precision Teaching, and PSI (Personalized System of Instruction) for staff and parent training. Instruction is individualized and based on measurable objectives. Supervisors provide teacher training and assist with data collect in the classroom. Teaching is adjusted as needed based on student performance. In a range of studies over 15 years, CABAS students made much greater gains than non-CABAS students with much smaller special education placement and significant cost reductions.
Lynn E. McClannahan & Patricia J. Krantz
The Princeton Child Development Institute, a nonprofit organization founded in 1970, Provides behavioral intervention for people with autism. Services are provided in an early intervention program, in preschool and school, in community-based group homes, in families' own homes, and in a program for adults that features life skills and supported, competitive employment. All phases of PCDI's programs are based on behavior analysis, including educational services, staff mentoring and evaluation, and program administration. Ongoing research assesses new intervention strategies that are immediately implemented to ameliorate skill deficits and behavior problems. Technology dissemination is an important aspect of the Institute's endeavors, and there is continuing examination of variables relevant to program replication. Clinical data are supported by measures of interobserver agreement, and annual program evaluations by outside experts in behavior analysis show that 80% to 100% of all preschool and school instructional programs produce desired behavior change. PCDI has been recognized as an “enduring program in behavior analysis.”
William L. Heward
This is a summary of specific teaching strategies found useful. Each strategy has been field-tested and validated to demonstrate effectiveness. The strategies can be used across a range of subject matters.
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